지진공학 is an 학제간 branch of engineering that designs and analyzes structures, such as buildings and bridges, with 지진 in mind. Its overall goal is to make such structures more resistant to earthquakes. An earthquake (or seismic) engineer aims to construct structures that will not be damaged in minor shaking and will avoid serious damage or collapse in a major earthquake. Earthquake engineering is the scientific field concerned with protecting society, the natural environment, and the man-made environment from earthquakes by limiting the 지진 위험 to 사회{0}}경제적으로 acceptable levels.1 Traditionally, it has been narrowly defined as the study of the behavior of structures and geo-structures subject to 지진 하중; it is considered as a subset of 구조 공학, 지반 공학, 기계 공학, 화학 공학, 응용 물리학, etc. However, the tremendous costs experienced in recent earthquakes have led to an expansion of its scope to encompass disciplines from the wider field of 토목 공학, 기계 공학, 원자력 공학, and from the 사회 과학, especially 사회학, 정치 과학, 경제학, and 재원.2
지진 공학의 주요 목표는 다음과 같습니다.
Foresee the potential consequences of strong 지진 on 도시 지역 and civil infrastructure.
Design, construct and maintain structures to 공연하다 at earthquake exposure up to the expectations and in compliance with 건물 코드.3
A 적절하게 설계된 구조 does not necessarily have to be extremely strong or expensive. It has to be properly designed to withstand the seismic effects while sustaining an acceptable level of damage.
지진 하중
지진 하중 means application of an earthquake-generated excitation on a structure (or geo-structure). It happens at contact surfaces of a structure either with the ground,5 with adjacent structures,6 or with 중력파 from 쓰나미. The loading that is expected at a given location on the Earth's surface is estimated by engineering 지진학. It is related to the 지진 위험 of the location.
지진 성능
지진 or 지진 성능 defines a structure's ability to sustain its main functions, such as its 안전 and 서비스 가능성, ~에 and ~ 후에 a particular earthquake exposure. A structure is normally considered 안전한 if it does not endanger the lives and 웰빙{0} of those in or around it by partially or completely collapsing. A structure may be considered 튼튼한 if it is able to fulfill its operational functions for which it was designed.
주요 건축법에 구현된 지진 공학의 기본 개념은 건물이 심각한 손상을 입었지만 전 세계적으로 붕괴되지 않고 드물고 매우 심한 지진에서 살아남을 수 있다고 가정합니다.7 On the other hand, it should remain operational for more frequent, but less severe seismic events.
지진 성능 평가
엔지니어는 특정 지진에 영향을 받는 개별 건물의 직접적인 손상과 관련된 실제 또는 예상 지진 성능의 정량화된 수준을 알아야 합니다. 이러한 평가는 실험적으로 또는 분석적으로 수행될 수 있습니다.
실험적 평가
Experimental evaluations are expensive tests that are typically done by placing a (scaled) model of the structure on a 흔들{0}테이블 that simulates the earth shaking and observing its behavior.8 Such kinds of experiments were first performed more than a century ago.9 Only recently has it become possible to perform 1:1 scale testing on full structures.
이러한 테스트의 비용이 많이 드는 특성으로 인해 주로 구조물의 지진 거동을 이해하고 모델을 검증하며 해석 방법을 검증하는 데 사용되는 경향이 있습니다. 따라서 일단 적절하게 검증되면 계산 모델과 수치 절차는 구조물의 내진 성능 평가에 큰 부담을 주는 경향이 있습니다.
분석/수치 평가
지진 성능 평가 or 지진 구조 해석 is a powerful tool of earthquake engineering which utilizes detailed modelling of the structure together with methods of structural analysis to gain a better understanding of seismic performance of building and 비{0}}건축물. 형식적 개념으로서의 기술은 비교적 최근에 개발된 것입니다.
In general, seismic structural analysis is based on the methods of 구조 역학.10 For decades, the most prominent instrument of seismic analysis has been the earthquake 응답 스펙트럼 method which also contributed to the proposed building code's concept of today.11
However, such methods are good only for linear elastic systems, being largely unable to model the structural behavior when damage (i.e., 비선형성) appears. Numerical 단계적{0}단계적{1}통합 proved to be a more effective method of analysis for multi-degree-of-freedom 구조 시스템 with significant 비선형성 under a 과도 현상 process of ground motion excitation.12 Use of the 유한 요소법 is one of the most common approaches for analyzing non-linear 토양 구조 상호 작용 computer models.
기본적으로 건축물의 내진성능을 평가하기 위해 수치해석을 한다. 성능 평가는 일반적으로 비선형 정적 푸시오버 분석 또는{0}비선형 시간 기록 분석을 사용하여 수행됩니다. 이러한 분석에서는 보, 기둥, 보{2}기둥 접합, 전단벽 등과 같은 구조 구성요소의{1}정확한 비선형 모델링을 달성하는 것이 필수적입니다. 따라서 실험 결과는 다음을 결정하는 데 중요한 역할을 합니다. 개별 구성요소의 모델링 매개변수, 특히 중요한 비선형 변형의 영향을 받는{3}}구성요소. 그런 다음 개별 구성요소를 조합하여 구조의{4}}완전한 비선형 모델을 만듭니다. 이렇게 생성된 모델을 분석하여 건물의 성능을 평가합니다.
The capabilities of the structural analysis software are a major consideration in the above process as they restrict the possible component models, the analysis methods available and, most importantly, the numerical robustness. The latter becomes a major consideration for structures that venture into the non-linear range and approach global or local collapse as the numerical solution becomes increasingly unstable and thus difficult to reach. There are several commercially available Finite Element Analysis software's such as CSI-SAP2000 and CSI-PERFORM-3D, MTR/SASSI, Scia Engineer-ECtools, 아바쿠스, and 안시스, all of which can be used for the seismic performance evaluation of buildings. Moreover, there is research-based finite element analysis platforms such as 오픈시즈, MASTODON, which is based on the 무스 프레임워크, RUAUMOKO 및 이전 DRAIN-2D/3D, 그 중 일부는 현재 오픈 소스입니다.
지진공학 연구
지진공학 연구는 지진공학과 관련된 사실의 발견 및 과학적 설명, 새로운 발견에 비추어 기존 개념의 수정 및 개발된 이론의 실제 적용을 목적으로 하는 현장 및 분석적 조사 또는 실험을 모두 의미합니다.
The 국립과학재단 (NSF) is the main United States government agency that supports fundamental research and education in all fields of earthquake engineering. In particular, it focuses on experimental, analytical and computational research on design and performance enhancement of structural systems.
The 지진공학연구소 (EERI) is a leader in dissemination of 지진공학 연구 related information both in the U.S. and globally.
A definitive list of earthquake engineering research related 흔들리는 테이블 around the world may be found in Experimental Facilities for Earthquake Engineering Simulation Worldwide.14 The most prominent of them is now E-Defense Shake Table15 in 일본.
미국 주요 연구 프로그램
NSF also supports the George E. Brown, Jr. 지진공학 시뮬레이션을 위한 네트워크
The NSF Hazard Mitigation and Structural Engineering program (HMSE) supports research on new technologies for improving the behaviour and response of structural systems subject to earthquake hazards; fundamental research on safety and reliability of constructed systems; innovative developments in 분석 and model based simulation of structural behaviour and response including soil-structure interaction; design concepts that improve 구조 성능 and flexibility; and application of new control techniques for structural systems.16
(NEES) that advances knowledge discovery and innovation for 지진 and 쓰나미 loss reduction of the nation's civil infrastructure and new experimental simulation techniques and instrumentation.17
NEES 네트워크에는 여러 유형의 실험 작업을 지원하는 14개의 지리적{1}}분산, 공유{2}} 실험실이 있습니다.17 geotechnical centrifuge research, 흔들{0}테이블 tests, large-scale structural testing, tsunami wave basin experiments, and field site research.18 Participating universities include: 코넬대학교; 리하이 대학교; 오리건 주립대학교; 렌셀러 폴리테크닉 인스티튜트; 버팔로 대학교, 뉴욕주립대학교; 캘리포니아 대학교 버클리; 캘리포니아 대학교 데이비스; 캘리포니아 대학교, 로스앤젤레스; 캘리포니아 대학교 샌디에이고; 캘리포니아 대학교 산타 바바라; 일리노이대학교, 어바나{0}}샴페인; 미네소타 대학교; 네바다 대학교, 리노; and the 텍사스 대학교, 오스틴.17
The equipment sites (labs) and a central data repository are connected to the global earthquake engineering community via the NEEShub website. The NEES website is powered by HUBzero software developed at 퍼듀 대학교 for 나노허브 specifically to help the scientific community share resources and collaborate. The cyberinfrastructure, connected via 인터넷2, 대화형 시뮬레이션 도구, 시뮬레이션 도구 개발 영역, 선별된 중앙 데이터 저장소, 애니메이션 프레젠테이션, 사용자 지원, 텔레프레즌스, 리소스 업로드 및 공유 메커니즘, 사용자 및 사용 패턴에 대한 통계를 제공합니다.
이 사이버 인프라를 통해 연구자는 중앙 위치의 표준화된 프레임워크 내에서 데이터를 안전하게 저장, 구성 및 공유할 수 있습니다. 동기화된 실시간 데이터와 동영상을 사용하여{0}원격으로 실험을 관찰하고 실험에 참여합니다. 연구 실험의 계획, 수행, 분석 및 출판을 촉진하기 위해 동료와 협력합니다. 여러 분산 실험의 결과를 결합하고 물리적 실험을 컴퓨터 시뮬레이션과 연결하여 전체 시스템 성능을 조사할 수 있는 계산 및 하이브리드 시뮬레이션을 수행합니다.
이러한 자원은 토목 및 기계 기반 시설 시스템의 내진 설계 및 성능을 개선하기 위한 협업 및 발견 수단을 공동으로 제공합니다.
지진 시뮬레이션
The very first 지진 시뮬레이션 were performed by statically applying some 수평 관성력 based on 비늘 최대 지상 가속도 to a mathematical model of a building.19 With the further development of computational technologies, 공전 approaches began to give way to 동적 ones.
Dynamic experiments on building and non-building structures may be physical, like 흔들어{0}테이블 테스트, or virtual ones. In both cases, to verify a structure's expected seismic performance, some researchers prefer to deal with so called "real time-histories" though the last cannot be "real" for a hypothetical earthquake specified by either a building code or by some particular research requirements. Therefore, there is a strong incentive to engage an earthquake simulation which is the seismic input that possesses only essential features of a real event.
때때로 지진 시뮬레이션은{0}강한 지진의 국부적 효과를 재현하는 것으로 이해됩니다.
구조 시뮬레이션
Theoretical or experimental evaluation of anticipated seismic performance mostly requires a 구조 시뮬레이션 which is based on the concept of structural likeness or similarity. 유사성 is some degree of 유추 or 유사 between two or more objects. The notion of similarity rests either on exact or approximate repetitions of 패턴 in the compared items.
In general, a building model is said to have similarity with the real object if the two share 기하학적 유사성, 운동학적 유사성 and 동적 유사성. The most vivid and effective type of similarity is the 운동학적 one. 운동학적 유사성 exists when the paths and velocities of moving particles of a model and its prototype are similar.
The ultimate level of 운동학적 유사성 is 운동학적 등가 when, in the case of earthquake engineering, time-histories of each story lateral displacements of the model and its prototype would be the same.
지진 진동 제어
지진 진동 제어 is a set of technical means aimed to mitigate seismic impacts in building and 건물이 아닌{0}} structures. All seismic vibration control devices may be classified as 수동적 인, 활동적인 or 잡종21 where:
수동 제어 장치 have no 피드백 capability between them, structural elements and the ground;
능동 제어 장치 incorporate real-time recording instrumentation on the ground integrated with earthquake input processing equipment and 액추에이터 within the structure;
하이브리드 제어 장치 have combined features of active and passive control systems.22
When ground 지진파 reach up and start to penetrate a base of a building, their energy flow density, due to reflections, reduces dramatically: usually, up to 90 percent . However, the remaining portions of the incident waves during a major earthquake still bear a huge devastating potential.
After the seismic waves enter a 상부 구조, there are a number of ways to control them in order to soothe their damaging effect and improve the building's seismic performance, for instance:
to 소산하다 the wave energy inside a 상부 구조 with properly engineered 댐퍼;
더 넓은 범위의 주파수 사이에서 파동 에너지를 분산시키기 위해;
to 흡수하다 the 공명 portions of the whole wave frequencies band with the help of so-called 질량 댐퍼.23
튜닝된(수동적 인), as AMD for the 활동적인, and as HMD for the 하이브리드 매스 댐퍼, have been studied and installed in 고층 건물, 주로 일본에서 사반세기 동안.24
However, there is quite another approach: partial suppression of the seismic energy flow into the 상부 구조 known as seismic or 베이스 격리.
For this, some pads are inserted into or under all major load-carrying elements in the base of the building which should substantially decouple a 상부 구조 from its 기초 공사 resting on a shaking ground.
The first evidence of earthquake protection by using the principle of base isolation was discovered in 파사르가대, 고대 페르시아, 지금은 이란의 도시로 기원전 6세기로 거슬러 올라갑니다. 아래에는 오늘날의 지진 진동 제어 기술의 몇 가지 샘플이 있습니다.
페루의 마른{0}}돌담
페루 is a highly 지진의 land; for centuries the dry-stone 건설 proved to be more earthquake-resistant than using mortar. People of 잉카 문명 were masters of the polished 'dry-stone walls', called 아슈라르, where blocks of stone were cut to fit together tightly without any 박격포. 잉카는 세계가 본 최고의 석공 중 하나였습니다.25 and many junctions in their masonry were so perfect that even blades of grass could not fit between the stones.
The stones of the dry-stone walls built by the Incas could move slightly and resettle without the walls collapsing, a passive 구조적 제어 technique employing both the principle of energy dissipation (coulomb damping) and that of suppressing 공명 amplifications.26
동조 질량 댐퍼
Typically the 동조 질량 댐퍼 are huge concrete blocks mounted in 고층 빌딩 or other structures and move in opposition to the 공진 주파수 oscillations of the structures by means of some sort of spring mechanism.
The 타이베이 101 skyscraper needs to withstand 태풍 winds and earthquake 떨림 common in this area of Asia/Pacific. For this purpose, a steel 흔들리는 추 weighing 660 metric tonnes that serves as a tuned mass damper was designed and installed atop the structure. Suspended from the 92nd to the 88th floor, the pendulum sways to decrease resonant amplifications of lateral displacements in the building caused by earthquakes and strong 돌풍.
히스테리시스 댐퍼
A 히스테리시스 댐퍼 is intended to provide better and more reliable seismic performance than that of a conventional structure by increasing the dissipation of 지진 입력 energy.27 There are five major groups of hysteretic dampers used for the purpose, namely:
유체 점성 댐퍼(FVD)
점성 댐퍼는 보조 댐핑 시스템이라는 이점이 있습니다. 그들은 타원형 히스테리시스 루프를 가지고 있으며 감쇠는 속도에 따라 다릅니다. 약간의 유지 관리가 잠재적으로 필요하지만 점성 댐퍼는 일반적으로 지진 후에 교체할 필요가 없습니다. 다른 댐핑 기술보다 가격이 비싸지만 지진 및 풍하중 모두에 사용할 수 있으며 가장 일반적으로 사용되는 히스테리시스 댐퍼입니다.28
마찰 댐퍼(FD)
Friction dampers tend to be available in two major types, linear and rotational and dissipate energy by heat. The damper operates on the principle of a 쿨롱 댐퍼. Depending on the design, friction dampers can experience 스틱{0}}슬립 현상 and 냉간 용접. 주요 단점은 마찰 표면이 시간이 지남에 따라 마모될 수 있고 이러한 이유로 풍하중을 분산시키는 데 권장되지 않는다는 것입니다. 지진 응용 분야에서 사용하면 마모가 문제가 되지 않으며 필요한 유지 보수가 필요하지 않습니다. 그들은 직사각형 히스테리시스 루프를 가지고 있으며 건물이 충분히 탄력 있는 한 지진 후에 원래 위치로 되돌아가는 경향이 있습니다.
금속 항복 댐퍼(MYD)
Metallic yielding dampers, as the name implies, yield in order to absorb the earthquake's energy. This type of damper absorbs a large amount of energy however they must be replaced after an earthquake and may prevent the building from settling back to its original position.
점탄성 댐퍼(VED)
점탄성 댐퍼는 바람 및 지진 응용 분야 모두에 사용할 수 있다는 점에서 유용하며 일반적으로 작은 변위에 제한됩니다. 일부 브랜드는 미국에서 건물에서 사용이 금지되어 기술의 신뢰성에 대한 우려가 있습니다.
스트래들링 진자 댐퍼(스윙)
베이스 절연
기지 격리는 지진의 운동 에너지가 건물의 탄성 에너지로 전달되는 것을 방지합니다. 이러한 기술은 구조물을 지면에서 분리하여 구조물이 다소 독립적으로 움직일 수 있도록 합니다. 에너지가 구조로 전달되는 정도와 에너지가 소산되는 방식은 사용되는 기술에 따라 다릅니다.
납 고무 베어링
Lead rubber bearing or LRB is a type of 베이스 격리 employing a heavy 제동. It was invented by 빌 로빈슨, 뉴질랜드 사람.29
Heavy damping mechanism incorporated in 진동 제어 technologies and, particularly, in base isolation devices, is often considered a valuable source of suppressing vibrations thus enhancing a building's seismic performance. However, for the rather pliant systems such as base isolated structures, with a relatively low bearing stiffness but with a high damping, the so-called "damping force" may turn out the main pushing force at a strong earthquake. The video30 shows a Lead Rubber Bearing being tested at the UCSD Caltrans-SRMD facility. The bearing is made of rubber with a lead core. It was a uniaxial test in which the bearing was also under a full structure load. Many buildings and bridges, both in New Zealand and elsewhere, are protected with lead dampers and lead and rubber bearings. 테 파파 통가레와, the national museum of New Zealand, and the New Zealand 국회의사당 have been fitted with the bearings. Both are in 웰링턴 which sits on an 활성 결함.29
댐퍼 베이스 아이솔레이터가{0}있는{1}스프링
Springs-with-damper base isolator installed under a three-story town-house, 산타 모니카, California is shown on the photo taken prior to the 1994 노스리지 지진 exposure. It is a 베이스 격리 device conceptually similar to 납 고무 베어링.
One of two three-story town-houses like this, which was well instrumented for recording of both vertical and horizontal 가속도 on its floors and the ground, has survived a severe shaking during the 노스리지 지진 and left valuable recorded information for further study.
단순 롤러 베어링
Simple roller bearing is a 베이스 격리 device which is intended for protection of various building and non-building structures against potentially damaging 측면 충격 of strong earthquakes.
This metallic bearing support may be adapted, with certain precautions, as a seismic isolator to skyscrapers and buildings on soft ground. Recently, it has been employed under the name of 금속 롤러 베어링 for a housing complex (17 stories) in 도쿄, 일본.31
마찰 진자 베어링
Friction pendulum bearing (FPB) is another name of 마찰 진자 시스템 (FPS). It is based on three pillars:32
관절 마찰 슬라이더;
구형의 오목한 슬라이딩 표면;
측면 변위 억제를 위한 인클로징 실린더.
Snapshot with the link to video clip of a 흔들{0}테이블 testing of FPB system supporting a rigid building model is presented at the right.
내진설계
내진설계 is based on authorized engineering procedures, principles and criteria meant to 설계 or 개조 structures subject to earthquake exposure.19 Those criteria are only consistent with the contemporary state of the knowledge about 지진 공학 구조물.33 Therefore, a building design which exactly follows seismic code regulations does not guarantee safety against collapse or serious damage.34
The price of poor seismic design may be enormous. Nevertheless, seismic design has always been a 시행 착오 process whether it was based on physical laws or on empirical knowledge of the 구조적 성능 of different shapes and materials.
To practice 내진 설계, seismic analysis or seismic evaluation of new and existing civil engineering projects, an 엔지니어 should, normally, pass examination on 지진 원리35 which, in the State of California, include:
지진 데이터 및 내진 설계 기준
공학적 시스템의 지진 특성
지진력
지진 분석 절차
지진 상세화 및 시공 품질 관리
복잡한 구조 시스템을 구축하기 위해,36 seismic design largely uses the same relatively small number of basic structural elements (to say nothing of vibration control devices) as any non-seismic design project.
Normally, according to building codes, structures are designed to "withstand" the largest earthquake of a certain probability that is likely to occur at their location. This means the loss of life should be minimized by preventing collapse of the buildings.
Seismic design is carried out by understanding the possible 실패 모드 of a structure and providing the structure with appropriate 힘, 단단함, 연성, and 구성37 to ensure those modes cannot occur.
내진 설계 요구 사항
내진 설계 요구 사항 depend on the type of the structure, locality of the project and its authorities which stipulate applicable seismic design codes and criteria.7 For instance, 캘리포니아 교통부's requirements called 내진 설계 기준 (SDC) and aimed at the design of new bridges in California38 incorporate an innovative seismic performance-based approach.
The most significant feature in the SDC design philosophy is a shift from a 강제{0}} 기반 평가 of seismic demand to a 변위{0}}기반 평가 of demand and capacity. Thus, the newly adopted displacement approach is based on comparing the 탄성 변위 demand to the 비탄성 변위 capacity of the primary structural components while ensuring a minimum level of inelastic capacity at all potential plastic hinge locations.
In addition to the designed structure itself, seismic design requirements may include a 지반 안정화 underneath the structure: sometimes, heavily shaken ground breaks up which leads to collapse of the structure sitting upon it.40 The following topics should be of primary concerns: liquefaction; dynamic lateral earth pressures on retaining walls; seismic slope stability; earthquake-induced settlement.41
원자력 시설 should not jeopardise their safety in case of earthquakes or other hostile external events. Therefore, their seismic design is based on criteria far more stringent than those applying to non-nuclear facilities.42 The 후쿠시마 1호 원전사고 and 다른 원자력 시설에 대한 피해 that followed the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami have, however, drawn attention to ongoing concerns over 일본의 핵내진설계기준 and caused many other governments to {0}}핵 프로그램을 재평가. Doubt has also been expressed over the seismic evaluation and design of certain other plants, including the 페센하임 원자력 발전소 in France.
고장 모드
실패 모드 is the manner by which an earthquake induced failure is observed. It, generally, describes the way the failure occurs. Though costly and time consuming, learning from each real earthquake failure remains a routine recipe for advancement in 내진 설계 methods. Below, some typical modes of earthquake-generated failures are presented.
The lack of 보강 coupled with poor 박격포 and inadequate roof-to-wall ties can result in substantial damage to an 강화되지 않은 벽돌 건물. 심하게 금이 가거나 기울어진 벽은 가장 흔한 지진 피해입니다. 또한 벽과 지붕 또는 바닥 다이어프램 사이에 발생할 수 있는 손상도 위험합니다. 프레임과 벽 사이의 분리는 지붕과 바닥 시스템의 수직 지지를 위태롭게 할 수 있습니다.
부드러운 스토리 효과. Absence of adequate stiffness on the ground level caused damage to this structure. A close examination of the image reveals that the rough board siding, once covered by a 벽돌 베니어판, has been completely dismantled from the studwall. Only the 엄격 of the floor above combined with the support on the two hidden sides by continuous walls, not penetrated with large doors as on the street sides, is preventing full collapse of the structure.
토양 액화. In the cases where the soil consists of loose granular deposited materials with the tendency to develop excessive hydrostatic pore water pressure of sufficient magnitude and compact, 액화 of those loose saturated deposits may result in non-uniform 정착 and tilting of structures. This caused major damage to thousands of buildings in Niigata, Japan during the 1964년 지진.43
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산사태 바위 가을. A 산사태 is a geological phenomenon which includes a wide range of ground movement, including 바위 폭포. Typically, the action of 중력 is the primary driving force for a landslide to occur though in this case there was another contributing factor which affected the original 경사 안정성: the landslide required an 지진 방아쇠 before being released.
인접 건물에 대한 두근 두근. This is a photograph of the collapsed five-story tower, St. Joseph's Seminary, 로스 알토스, 캘리포니아 which resulted in one fatality. During 로마 프리에타 지진, the tower pounded against the independently vibrating adjacent building behind. A possibility of pounding depends on both buildings' lateral displacements which should be accurately estimated and accounted for.
At 노스리지 지진, the Kaiser Permanente concrete frame office building had joints completely shattered, revealing 부적절한 구속 강철, which resulted in the second story collapse. In the transverse direction, composite end 전단벽, consisting of two 와이스 of brick and a layer of 숏크리트 that carried the lateral load, peeled apart because of 관계를 통해{0}}불충분함 and failed.
Poor detailing of the 보강 (lack of concrete confinement in the columns and at the beam-column joints, inadequate splice length).
Seismically weak 부드러운 이야기 at the first floor.
파운데이션 미끄러짐 효과 of a relatively rigid residential building structure during 1987년 휘티어 내로우즈 지진. The magnitude 5.9 earthquake pounded the Garvey West Apartment building in Monterey Park, California and shifted its 상부 구조 about 10 inches to the east on its foundation.
If a superstructure is not mounted on a 베이스 격리 system, its shifting on the basement should be prevented.
철근콘크리트 column burst at 노스리지 지진 due to 불충분한 전단 보강 모드 which allows main reinforcement to 버클 outwards. The deck unseated at the 돌쩌귀 and failed in shear. As a result, the La Cienega-Venice 지하도 section of the 10 Freeway collapsed.
로마 프리에타 지진: side view of reinforced concrete 지원{0}} 열 실패 which triggered 상부 데크가 하부 데크로 붕괴 of the two-level Cypress viaduct of Interstate Highway 880, Oakland, CA.
옹벽 실패 at 로마 프리에타 지진 in Santa Cruz Mountains area: prominent northwest-trending extensional cracks up to 12 cm (4.7 in) wide in the concrete 방수로 to Austrian Dam, the north 인접.
Ground shaking triggered 토양 액화 in a subsurface layer of 모래, producing differential lateral and vertical movement in an overlying 등딱지 of unliquified sand and 미사. This 접지 실패 모드, termed 측면 퍼짐, 액화{0}}관련 지진 피해의 주요 원인입니다.44
Severely damaged building of Agriculture Development Bank of China after 2008년 쓰촨성 지진: most of the 보 및 교각 기둥이 전단됨. Large diagonal cracks in masonry and veneer are due to in-plane loads while abrupt 합의 of the right end of the building should be attributed to a 매립 which may be hazardous even without any earthquake.45
이중 쓰나미 영향: 파도 hydraulic 압력 and 범람. Thus, 인도양 지진 of December 26, 2004, with the 진원지 off the west coast of 수마트라, Indonesia, triggered a series of devastating tsunamis, killing more than 230,000 people in eleven countries by 거대한 파도로 주변 해안 지역 사회를 범람 up to 30 meters (100 feet) high.47
내진{0}}구조
지진 공사 means implementation of 내진 설계 to enable building and non-building structures to live through the anticipated earthquake exposure up to the expectations and in compliance with the applicable 건물 코드.
설계와 시공은 밀접한 관련이 있습니다. 좋은 솜씨를 얻으려면 구성원과 해당 연결에 대한 세부 정보가 가능한 한 간단해야 합니다. 일반적으로 모든 건설과 마찬가지로 지진 건설은 사용 가능한 건설 자재가 있는 경우 건물, 기반 시설을 개장 또는 조립하는 것으로 구성된 프로세스입니다.48
The destabilizing action of an earthquake on constructions may be 직접 (seismic motion of the ground) or 간접 (earthquake-induced landslides, 토양 액화 and waves of tsunami).
건축물은 겉보기에는 안정되어 보이지만 지진이 일어나면 위험할 뿐입니다.49 The crucial fact is that, for safety, earthquake-resistant construction techniques are as important as 품질 관리 and using correct materials. 지진 계약자 should be 등기 in the state/province/country of the project location (depending on local regulations), 보세 and 보험인용 필요.
To minimize possible 사상자 수, 지진은 공사가 끝나기 전에 언제든지 발생할 수 있다는 점을 염두에 두고 공사 과정을 구성해야 합니다.
Each 건설 프로젝트 requires a qualified team of professionals who understand the basic features of seismic performance of different structures as well as 건설 관리.
어도비 구조
Around thirty percent of the world's population lives or works in earth-made construction.50 어도비 벽돌 type of 진흙 벽돌 is one of the oldest and most widely used building materials. The use of 어도비 벽돌 is very common in some of the world's most hazard-prone regions, traditionally across Latin America, Africa, Indian subcontinent and other parts of Asia, Middle East and Southern Europe.
Adobe 건물은 강한 지진에 매우 취약한 것으로 간주됩니다.51 However, multiple ways of seismic strengthening of new and existing adobe buildings are available.52
어도비 건축의 향상된 내진 성능을 위한 핵심 요소는 다음과 같습니다.
건설 품질.
컴팩트한 상자{0}유형 레이아웃입니다.
지진 보강.53
석회암 및 사암 구조
석회암 is very common in architecture, especially in North America and Europe. Many landmarks across the world are made of limestone. Many medieval churches and castles in Europe are made of 석회암 and 사암 masonry. They are the long-lasting materials but their rather heavy weight is not beneficial for adequate seismic performance.
Application of modern technology to seismic retrofitting can enhance the survivability of unreinforced masonry structures. As an example, from 1973 to 1989, the 솔트레이크시티 및 카운티 빌딩 in 유타 was exhaustively renovated and repaired with an emphasis on preserving historical accuracy in appearance. This was done in concert with a seismic upgrade that placed the weak sandstone structure on base isolation foundation to better protect it from earthquake damage.
목재 프레임 구조
목재 프레임 dates back thousands of years, and has been used in many parts of the world during various periods such as ancient Japan, Europe and medieval England in localities where timber was in good supply and building stone and the skills to work it were not.
The use of 목재 골조 in buildings provides their complete skeletal framing which offers some structural benefits as the timber frame, if properly engineered, lends itself to better 지진 생존 가능성.54
가벼운{0}}프레임 구조
가벼운{0}}프레임 구조 usually gain seismic resistance from rigid 합판 shear walls and wood structural panel 다이어프램.55 Special provisions for seismic load-resisting systems for all 공학목재 structures requires consideration of diaphragm ratios, horizontal and vertical diaphragm shears, and 커넥터/잠그는 물건 values. In addition, collectors, or drag struts, to distribute shear along a diaphragm length are required.
강화된 석조 구조물
A construction system where 강철 보강 is embedded in the 모르타르 조인트 of 석공 직 or placed in holes and that are filled with 콘크리트 or 그라우트 is called 강화 벽돌.56 There are various practices and techniques to reinforce masonry. The most common type is the reinforced 중공 단위 벽돌.
To achieve a 두들겨 펼 수 있는 behavior in masonry, it is necessary that the 전단 강도 of the wall is greater than the 굴곡 강도.57 The effectiveness of both vertical and horizontal reinforcements depends on the type and quality of the masonry units and 박격포.
The devastating 1933년 롱비치 지진 revealed that masonry is prone to earthquake damage, which led to the 캘리포니아 주 코드 making masonry reinforcement mandatory across California.
철근 콘크리트 구조물
철근콘크리트 is concrete in which steel reinforcement bars (철근) or 섬유 have been incorporated to strengthen a material that would otherwise be 다루기 힘든. It can be used to produce 빔, 기둥, 바닥 또는 다리.
프리스트레스 콘크리트 is a kind of 철근 콘크리트 used for overcoming concrete's natural weakness in tension. It can be applied to 빔, floors or bridges with a longer span than is practical with ordinary reinforced concrete. Prestressing 힘줄 (generally of high tensile steel cable or rods) are used to provide a clamping load which produces a 압축 응력 that offsets the 인장 응력 that the concrete 압축 부재 would, otherwise, experience due to a bending load.
To prevent catastrophic collapse in response earth shaking (in the interest of life safety), a traditional reinforced concrete frame should have 두들겨 펼 수 있는 joints. Depending upon the methods used and the imposed seismic forces, such buildings may be immediately usable, require extensive repair, or may have to be demolished.
프리스트레스 구조
프리스트레스 구조 is the one whose overall 진실성, 안정 and 보안 depend, primarily, on a 프리스트레싱. 프리스트레스 means the intentional creation of permanent stresses in a structure for the purpose of improving its performance under various service conditions.58
프리스트레스에는 다음과 같은 기본 유형이 있습니다.
사전{0}}압축(대부분 구조의 자체 가중치 사용)
프리텐셔닝 with high-strength embedded tendons
포스트{0}}텐셔닝 with high-strength bonded or unbonded tendons
Today, the concept of 프리스트레스 구조 is widely engaged in design of 건물, underground structures, TV towers, power stations, floating storage and offshore facilities, 원자로 vessels, and numerous kinds of 다리 systems.59
A beneficial idea of 프리스트레싱 was, apparently, familiar to the ancient Rome architects; look, e.g., at the tall 애틱 wall of 콜롯세움 working as a stabilizing device for the wall 교각 beneath.
강철 구조물
강철 구조물 are considered mostly earthquake resistant but some failures have occurred. A great number of welded 강철 모멘트{0}}저항 프레임 buildings, which looked earthquake-proof, surprisingly experienced brittle behavior and were hazardously damaged in the 1994년 노스리지 지진.60 After that, the 연방 비상 관리 기관 (FEMA) initiated development of repair techniques and new design approaches to minimize damage to steel moment frame buildings in future earthquakes.61
For 구조용 강철 seismic design based on 부하 및 저항 계수 설계 (LRFD) approach, it is very important to assess ability of a structure to develop and maintain its bearing resistance in the 비탄성 range. A measure of this ability is 연성, which may be observed in a 재료 자체, in a 구조적 요소, or to a 전체 구조.
As a consequence of 노스리지 지진 experience, the American Institute of Steel Construction has introduced AISC 358 "Pre-Qualified Connections for Special and intermediate Steel Moment Frames." The AISC Seismic Design Provisions require that all 강철 모멘트 저항 프레임 employ either connections contained in AISC 358, or the use of connections that have been subjected to pre-qualifying cyclic testing.62
지진 피해 예측
지진 손실 추정 is usually defined as a 데미지 비율 (박사) which is a ratio of the earthquake damage repair cost to the 총 가치 of a building.63 가능한 최대 손실 (PML) is a common term used for earthquake loss estimation, but it lacks a precise definition. In 1999, ASTM E2026 'Standard Guide for the Estimation of Building Damageability in Earthquakes' was produced in order to standardize the nomenclature for seismic loss estimation, as well as establish guidelines as to the review process and qualifications of the reviewer.64
Earthquake loss estimations are also referred to as 지진 위험 평가. 위험 평가 프로세스는 일반적으로 이러한 지반 운동 하에서 건물의 취약성 또는 손상과 결합된 다양한 지반 운동의 확률을 결정하는 것을 포함합니다. 결과는 건물 교체 가치의 백분율로 정의됩니다.65